In his 50-years NASA anniversary lecture, Stephen Hawking called for the World to spend a lot more money on manned missions to the Moon, Mars and eventually to other stars. In a move to conserve humanity from catastrophes on Earth he would like to see an increase in the money spent for space exploration to about 0.25% of the world GDP, and a manned base on the Moon to pave the way for more adventurous missions to Mars.

While I guess it would be nice to save humanity, we should also think about the technological progress that would have to be made before pulling something like this off. A lot of the technology and research coming from this would eventually trickle down to us plebes, hopefully raising our standard of living, increasing the size of our TV’s and perhaps even help save us from one of the dooms-days people seem to be predicting. All in all, it is just a lot easier for the public to relate to space exploration when there are actually humans on board, and my guess is we’d see a boost of students in natural science studies as well as in the general interest in science/astronomy.

Hawking also mentions that, in the long run, we should aim outside our own solar system, and towards interstellar colonization. That is, colonization of habitable planets around other stars, and he suggests this should happen within the next 200 to 500 years. While it’s impossible to say how technology will evolve in this timespan, it seems reasonable to estimate that in that time period our technology could be good enough to start discussing that. As you may remember, we here at Reducedmass have already lined up some possible methods for reaching the stars.

Other than that, you should go read the Wikipedia article on space colonization if your more interested in this stuff. They cover both solar system as well as interstellar colonization.

Well it’s not exactly new, but an image from the Hubble Space Telescope of V838 Monocerotis looks remarkably similar to the logo of a popular open source project. Just take a look:

Aside from this rather cool coincidence, the image is a good example on how beautiful the Universe can be. Also, we actually have a hard time explaining what is going on, making it even more interesting. First everybody thought that this outburst of gas was a typical nova, an explosion due to the exchange of matter between a white dwarf and a nearby star, but on closer inspection, the system should not include a white dwarf, let alone have had the time to accrete enough material onto the surface of it. This eventually makes it explode as there’s a limit to how much mass the physics of a white dwarf can bare (around 1.4 solar masses if I remember correctly).

So what is it then? Well there are some theories, but as far as I can see, nothing has been concluded yet. It could be an outburst from the supergiant star in it’s deathbed, or the swallowing of a large planet (go read more on the Wikipedia page), but whatever it is, it’s quite spectacular and we should continue to investigate the system further. Who knows, maybe we’ll discover a completely new type of explosion leading to spectacular gas eruptions like this.

Until then, let’s just thank the Universe for kicking in on the good course for unbreaking the internet.

The LIGO detector, a US gravitational waves detector, will see a $205 million upgrade in the next seven years, making the Advanced LIGO 10 times more sensitive and boosting the number of observable galaxies from hundreds to tens of thousands.

While it might seem like a lot of money, the research on gravitational waves are very important for understanding one of the most fundamental parts (it’s one of the only four known forces) of our Universe: Gravity. Although gravity is probably the most intuitively well known force (just try to jump out of the window), we really don’t know much about it on a fundamental level, and it doesn’t fit in with the rest of the fundamental physics in the Standard Model. Einstein released his theory of General Relativity in 1916, and since then we have only verified the predictions of it, never disproven it. One of the predictions of General Relativity is the existence of gravitational waves, and we’ve been trying to detect them directly for a long time*. With the upgrade of the LIGO experiment, the probability of detecting gravitational waves will increase significantly. As the LIGO scientists says in the LiveScience article:

“With Advanced LIGO, it’d be very surprising from a relativity perspective if we didn’t observe anything.”

Not only can the gravitational waves help us investigate the gravitational force and why it doesn’t fit with the other forces further, it could also be a great tool for future astronomers and astrophysicists. The gravitational wave is shaped uniquely by its source and by traveling unhindered through space and time, they would enable us to investigate things like black holes, neutron stars and grand cosmic collisions in a way that is currently not possible by looking at the light (if any) from these objects.

* Gravitational waves have never been detected directly, but their existence has been proven indirectly by the observation of an exotic pulsar system. This system consists of a pulsar and a close companion and seems to be losing orbital energy that goes to making the gravitational waves, exactly as Einstein predicted that such a system would. This discovery was the basis of the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics, and you should go read that press release if you’re more interested.

As a follow-up on our exoplanet hunting article a few days back, I just wanted to make a quick note on a new low mass exoplanet discovery that has just been made. This one is around 5 times the mass of Earth, making it the lightest known exoplanet to date. As i also mentioned in the article, we expect to find Earth-sized planets in the near future, but at least the scientists at Spanish Research Council and the University College London get to keep the trophy for a little while.

What is interesting about this discovery is that the presence of the planet was inferred from its perturbation of the orbit of another already known transiting planet in the same system. This means that the transits of the other Neptune-sized planet was perturbed slightly in a way that was modeled and fitted to match the presence of another smaller planet close to the bigger one. Observations of the radial velocity confirmed these predictions perfectly, and another rocky exoplanet (we now know 4) can be added to the list. With the very close orbit it doesn’t look like this planet can harbor any life, however.

Link to the press release.

Researchers at the University of Texas in Austin have created the worlds first peta-watt laser, that’s 1.000.000.000.000.000 Watts! Compare that to the standard hand-held laserpointers that are only in the milli-watt range (one milli-watt is 0.001 Watts). It’s not going to be a continuous laser like we’re used to though, as it only releases a very short pulse of laser light that lasts about one trillionth of a second.

They will use this to recreate some extreme astronomical phenomena such as mini-supernova’s, tabletop stars and some extremely high temperature plasma that mimicks so-called brown dwarfs. These small-scale simulations of these huge phenomena should give some insight into how they work.

In addition to the astronomical work they hope to do with the laser, they will also be doing some work on controlled fusion.

Recently there have been some news on new methods for exoplanet searching as well as improvements on current methods. Searching for planets outside our solar system is one of the newest and most exiting fields of astronomy, so I thought I’d go and make me a bit of an overview of what is hot in the field.

First thing’s first

So far, 287 planets have been found orbiting stars in the galactic neighborhood. That’s 287 more than were confirmed just 13 years ago, and the field is rapidly expanding to make this number a lot larger in the next couple of years as technology enables us to detect smaller planets in larger orbits, as well as performing large surveys of the sky. The thing about almost all of the exoplanets we know today is that they’re quite strange compared to the planets in our own solar system, and compared to our understanding of planet formation. We have small, rocky planets close to the Sun, and larger, gassy giants in the outer parts, and what we’ve found is a bunch of supergiant planets extremely close to their star. Could our solar system really be so special? The most successful method to date for finding exoplanets, the method of radial velocity, is currently only capable of finding these massive planets that orbit close to their star, so it’s not so strange that we only find those you might say. However, if we understand just a little about planet formation, these systems should be VERY rare, so just maybe this is only the tip of the iceberg, the statistical exceptions, and if we just look a little closer we will be able to see a lot of planets that look just like our Earth.

That’s exactly what a world of planet hunting astronomers have set out to find, and technology has to be pushed pretty far for them to succeed.

Combing the galaxy

Starting with the beloved radial velocity method, scientists have recently proposed a method for improving the accuracy of this method around 60 times. The radial velocity method uses the fact that the planet doesn’t really orbit the star, but, just like the star, orbits the center of mass of the combined system of planet and star. This means that the star will have a velocity away from or towards us (unless the plane is exactly perpendicular to ours of course), and because of the Doppler shift of light waves (think of the shift in pitch of the sound from passing ambulances), we’re able to determine all sorts of things about the planet or planets around the star. But the precision of the measurement has only been good enough to measure larger planets in smaller orbits, simply because they are rocking the star the most.
The new method, that uses a so-called laser comb, increases the precision to the point where earth-size planets in earth-like orbits could be detected. This is of course nice because it will enable us to find planets where life as we know it can exist, but it is also necessary for obtaining a larger number of discovered planets, making better statistics about planets possible. With better statistical data we’ll be able to create better theories for planet formation and distribution.

Transits

Another successful method for exoplanet hunting is the transit method. With this method we look for planets that are passing in front of their star by measuring the brightness of it. If the brightness of the star takes a characteristic dip, it could mean that an exoplanet is passing in front of it. We can then continue observing it and use other methods, like the radial velocity method, to confirm the existence of the planet and determine important physical properties. The main disadvantage with this method is of course that the planet has to be exactly in front of the star in our line of sight, and the probability of this can be very small, especially for planets in larger orbit. But unlike the radial velocity method mentioned above, where observations have to be done over weeks or months, this method has the advantage that transits can be seen on the light curve when they happen. This introduces the possibility of surveys that looks for transit events on a big number of stars in a small amount of time.

So despite the low probability of transit events, a lot of planets can be found with this method by making surveys of the night sky, and this is exactly what the new SuperWASP (Super Wide Area Search for Planets) collaboration is doing. In recent news they announced the discovery of 10 new exoplanets in only six months, and is so far the most successful transit survey by discovering 15 of the 45 exoplanets that have been found using transits. Currently it will not find planets much smaller than Jupiter, the largest planet in our solar system, but it can lead the way for future space-based missions, like the Kepler Mission, that will be able to find Earth-like planets and give us some really nice statistical data on planets in our galaxy.

Microlensing

In the theory of General Relativity Einstein showed that light is affected by gravity, just like normal matter. So if a distant light source passes behind a heavy object in our line of sight, we will see the source as if it was passed through an optical lens, and we call it gravitational lensing. If the lens has a mass comparable to that of a star, it is called microlensing, and this is among other things used to search for planets in the Galaxy. The light will be magnified in a special way when the planet is passing in front of the background source, so this method is also based on observations of the light curve.

These lensing events are very rare, and it is difficult to locate the planetary system again after a lensing event. The method is thus best suited for large surveys and statistics rather than detailed investigation, simply because we usually only have one chance. The advantage is however that the microlensing method works well for smaller planets in larger orbits, and can thus be used to detect habitable planets already. Of the 8 observed microlensing planets, the record is so far a mass of around 5,5 times that of the Earth. To give it a nice and memorable name, this planet is called OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb. Future space-based missions, for example using the SIM PlanetQuest satellite, will take the surveys to a new level and provide much more data than can be currently obtained.

Looking ahead

While all of these clever ways of finding planets around other stars are pretty cool, the most exciting method of planet hunting is also the simplest to understand. Namely looking at the planets directly with a giant telescope. While this sound pretty simple, there is a slight problem resolving the light from a planet millions of times less bright than its star. Its like being able to distinguish a firefly next to a light house at a huge distance. If however seen directly, we will be able to determine a lot of the properties like surface temperature, atmospheric composition etc., that are all very important for investigating the possibility of life on the planet.

One planet has so far been seen this way, but space-based missions like the Terrestrial Planet Finder, the Darwin Mission and enormous ground based telescopes like the Extremely large telescope would be able to do this easily. Unfortunately, all of these are in very early stages of planning, and are being subjected to budget cuts and all the usual stuff.

But the next couple of years are going to be awesome with regards to exoplanet hunting. A lot of new, promising, methods are being developed and used to give us better insight into planet distribution and formation and possibly one of the most tantalizing subjects: life in the Universe. My personal guess is that we will see the discovery of the first Earth-sized planet within 5 years, and who knows when we’ll find the first Earth-like planet with a thick, oxygen-rich atmosphere and liquid water? Let’s get going.

As announced here, there might exist an ocean beneath the surface crust of Titan, Saturn’s largest moon.

As if Titan was not exciting enough already!?

They base the claim on measurements performed by a radar aboard the Cassini space probe that has brought us some truly amazing observations from Saturn and its system of rings and moons. The radar has been able to measure the position of 50 unique landmarks on the surface of Titan, that has, in later fly-bys, shifted their position in a way that is difficult to explain unless there’s an ocean beneath the surface of Titan.

From advanced computer simulations researchers have been able to determine that the ocean could consist of water and ammonium, and other researchers have analyzed the implications of such an ocean. They find that it would actually be able to harbour life as we know it, but that the Cassini-Huygens probes will probably not be able to figure out if it does.

On Youtube I found this video of Arthur C. Clarke, who sadly recently passed away, talking about the Cassini mission in general and the fly-by of Iapetus in specific.

What is so sad about this is that you can really see him hoping that Cassini finds us something truly amazing, knowing that he will probably not be here to see it. This result could be a significant step in that direction, so let’s get a mission on track that will look for life around Saturn.

We all remember how James Bond in the movie Golden Eye slid down the giant dish of the Arecibo telescope in Puerto Rico, while that crazy hacker was doing some nasty tricks with his pen. If you liked that, you should probably go see the next James Bond movie, Quantum of Solace, as it has been anounced that the crew will visit the Very Large Telescope in the Atacama desert in Chile.

Go take a look at the press release if you want more details on the filming at the VLT. Back here I’ll tell you a little about the telescope and the incredible technologies it contains.

While it is called the Very Large Telescope, where the naming talent of international astronomers really shines through (see also for further proof of their original naming skills, the Overwhelmingly Large Telescope), it actually consists of four large 8.2 m in diameter telescopes, as well as four minor helper telescopes. The telescopes operate from the near ultra violet to the mid infrared on the electromagnetic spectrum, meaning that it also covers the human visible range of light. Now these 8.2 meter telescopes might seem minor compared to the Arecibo radio telescope with its 305 meters of diameter, but they are actually quite large for being optical telescopes. Now for the really amazing stuff, the four telescopes can be combined using interferometry, acting like one big whoping 200 meter optical telescope.

Building such a large interferometer is an unbelievable feat of engineering. For it to work, the telescopes has to capture the same wave of light, each shift the phase of the light exactly the right amount, and combine the waves creating constructive interference. And light waves travel, surprisingly you might add, at the speed of light! If the light paths are shifted just 1 thousands of a millimeter, the image gets blurry. This sounds like magic. Why would we ever build big telescopes if we can just put together smaller ones and get the same picture? The thing is, the picture is not the same. Using interferometry you can achieve the same resolution as one big telescope, but you will loose light. Thus the interferometer can only be used to look at relatively bright objects and you will see fringes on the image. The quality of the interferometer images are improved by filling in the “holes” in the light with the four small telescopes which can move.

Its amazing how they do it, but the magic doesn’t stop here. One of the big problems of ground based telescopes is that the Earth’s atmosphere disturbs the light before it reaches the telescope, giving rise to blurrier images. The VLT, just like many other modern telescopes, makes up for this by shooting a laser that illuminates a spot at the top of the atmosphere and measures the atmospheric disturbances of that exact instance (they can do this because they know what the laser spot SHOULD look like without any disturbance). They then bend the mirror (which is over 8 meter wide) of the telescope to correct for the disturbance just in time, and just enought for it to capture a totally sharp image, as if the atmosphere was not there. Using this technique, the VLT is able to observe objects in the near IR up to 3 times sharper than the Hubble Space Telescope. I kid you not!

So whenever you see one of the wonderful pictures of your favorite astronomical object, go think about the technologies that had to be invented, and built, for you to enjoy the beauties of our Universe. And lets hope the good Hollywood crew shows a bit of this stuff to the world.

With the discovery of about 230 exoplanets and the possibility of habitable planets around the nearest neighboring star, it is time to start thinking seriously about how to get there. Weather it will be to visit our galactic neighbors or to colonize the planets ourselves, the journey would probably be worth it.

So here on ReducedMass.com, we decided to look at 5 methods making it possible for humankind to go on light year journeys. Note that we’ll base this short list on what seems scientifically feasible today (but might not be), so don’t expect any warp-drives, worm-holes or other faster-than-light methods. That said, some kind of speculation, subjectivity and guess-work can’t be avoided, so please feel free to let us know what you think in the comments section below, and do tell us about all the brilliant methods that should’ve made it to the list.

Enough with the babble… let’s get started!

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Imagine my surprise when i saw a news item on NASA’s homepage about Spitzer. Turns out it has nothing to do with the prostitute loving New York Governor, but a involves a badass infrared space-telescope from NASA.

The telescope has made some discoveries recently that show amounts of organic gasses and water in what may be a planetary forming region around an infant star. Water and organic gases have been found before in abundance in the Interstellar Medium, but using a new detection method, they were now able to detect them in the inner protoplanetary disk, where it is proposed that earth-like planets would form. In the words of themselves:

By pushing the telescope’s capabilities to a new level, astronomers now have a better view of the earliest stages of planetary formation, which may help shed light on the origins of our own solar system and the potential for life to develop in others….
…-they know that water and organics are abundant in the interstellar medium but not what happens to them after they are incorporated into a disk. “Are these molecules destroyed, preserved or enhanced in the disk?” said Carr. “Now that we can identify these molecules and inventory them, we will have a better understanding of the origins and evolution of the basic building blocks of life…

…”This is a much larger story than just one or two disks,” said Blake. “Spitzer can efficiently measure these water signatures in many objects, so this is just the beginning of what we will learn.”

Source: Nasa (link to article)